A stethoscope is a medical device for listening to sounds inside the body. The initial stethoscope was invented in the early 19th century by French physician Ren� Laennec, but was actually trying to achieve a rather different end: doctor-patient distance....
Wednesday, June 21, 2017
ADD/ADHD
Attention deficit disorder (ADD), formerly known as attention
deficit/hyper-activity disorder (ADHD), is one of the most common mental
disorders among children today. It is estimated that approximately 3 percent to
5 percent of all children (two to three times as many boys are affected than
girls) or nearly 2 million American children (which correlates to one child in
each classroom in the United States) have ADHD according to the National
Institute of Mental Health.1 ADHD does not only affect children, as
symptoms can progress into adulthood as well.
The specific causes of ADHD are currently unknown, with several factors being
responsible in different people. No solitary causative factor has been
identified as being responsible for the different behavior patterns observed in
ADHD. ADHD is only diagnosed by certain characteristic behavior patterns that
are observed over time; no other clear physical signs can be seen. Common
behavioral pattern categories in ADHD include inattention, impulsivity, and
hyper-activity.
• Inattention: This is marked by difficulty in keeping the mind focused on
any one subject and a short attention span. People with ADHD often become bored
after only a few minutes at work on a subject, and placing focused attention on
new or unfamiliar topics can be challenging.
• Impulsivity: This is marked by an inability to refrain from immediate
reactions, making it difficult to wait and first think before speaking or
acting.
• Hyperactivity: This is marked by constant perpetual motion; staying in one
place and sitting still can be difficult. Adults may feel quite restless and may
start several projects and have a difficult time finishing them.
Diagnosis of ADHD is based upon an analysis of the person’s behavioral
patterns, which are compared to established criteria. These criteria are defined
in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-IV). The manual outlines the three previously mentioned behavior
patterns, and people may display varying amounts of each pattern or only one.
Because nearly everyone displays some of these symptoms at some time in their
life, certain criteria, including age of onset (early in life, before age
seven), duration of symptoms (continuous for at least six months), frequency
(occurring more often in themselves than others of similar age), and most
importantly, behavior(s), must occur in at least two different areas of the
person’s life, namely, school, home, work, or social settings.
A recent report issued by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
claimed that nearly 1.6 million elementary school–aged children have a diagnosis
of ADHD, and a national survey revealed that the parents of 7 percent of
children ages 6–11 years old were told by a healthcare professional that their
child had ADHD.2 The report also included the following demographic
information: boys are nearly three times as likely to have ADHD than girls;
white children are twice as likely than Hispanic and black children to have a
diagnosis of ADHD; children with health insurance are diagnosed with ADHD more
often than children without health insurance; and children with ADHD use more
healthcare services, including mental health services, than those without ADHD.
This report went on to propose that ADHD is probably overdiagnosed in those with
regular access and may be underdiagnosed in those with limited healthcare
access.
A common neurodevelopmental disorder, ADHD results in impaired educational
processes, social growth, and adaptation that lead to increasing rates of
behavioral difficulty, depression, school dropouts, and substance
abuse,3 which have lead to the mass prescription of stimulant
psychotropic medications in children affected with this disorder. With no fully
established biological causes recognized, ADHD does display prominent
heritability. Mainstream treatment focuses on the use of mainly stimulant drugs,
and because of the perceived relative success of these drugs in alleviating ADHD
symptoms, many studies have focused mainly on genes that are responsible for the
development and regulation of brain neurotransmitter systems, specifically that
of dopamine, wherein the physiologic basis for the action of these drugs
exists.
Genetic factors do play a role in the genesis of ADHD; estimates of
herita-bility are greater than those of nearly every other child and adolescent
psychiatric disorder and first-degree relatives have increased rates of ADHD,
including conduct and affective disorders as well as substance abuse and
dependency. Additionally, the subtypes of ADHD (impulsivity, hyperactivity,
inattention) do not correlate with that of additional family members, leading
researchers to conclude that nongenetic factors are responsible for
intrafamialial variability.4 Factors other than genetics have been
implicated in the development of ADHD prior to birth. Prenatal exposure to
nicotine and psychosocial adversity have been identified as risk factors for ADHD; a review of the studies in ADHD literature
exploring the relationship between prenatal exposure to these factors and the
risk of developing ADHD revealed that smoking (specifically nicotine exposure)
and exposure to psychosocial stress during pregnancy indicated greater and
modest risk, respectively, in contributing to the development of
ADHD.5 Other causes/contributors of ADHD that have been implicated in
the literature include food sensitivities and allergies, food additive
intolerance, imbalance and deficiency of nutrients, environmental toxicity
(including heavy metal poisoning, thyroid irregularities, and other toxic
pollutants).
Tuesday, June 13, 2017
Nursing Diagnoses Organized According to Diagnostic Divisions (continued)
Elimination—ability to excrete waste products
• Bowel Incontinence
• Constipation
• Constipation, perceived
• Constipation, risk for
• Diarrhea
• Motility, dysfunctional gastrointestinal
• Motility, risk for dysfunctional gastrointestinal
• Urinary Elimination, impaired
• Urinary Elimination, readiness for enhanced
• Urinary Incontinence, functional
• Urinary Incontinence, overflow
• Urinary Incontinence, reflex
• Urinary Incontinence, stress
• Urinary Incontinence, urge
• Urinary Incontinence, risk for urge
• Urinary Retention [acute/chronic]
• Bowel Incontinence
• Constipation
• Constipation, perceived
• Constipation, risk for
• Diarrhea
• Motility, dysfunctional gastrointestinal
• Motility, risk for dysfunctional gastrointestinal
• Urinary Elimination, impaired
• Urinary Elimination, readiness for enhanced
• Urinary Incontinence, functional
• Urinary Incontinence, overflow
• Urinary Incontinence, reflex
• Urinary Incontinence, stress
• Urinary Incontinence, urge
• Urinary Incontinence, risk for urge
• Urinary Retention [acute/chronic]
Food/Fluid—ability to maintain intake of and utilize nutrients and liquids to meet physiological needs
• Breastfeeding, effective
• Breastfeeding, ineffective
• Breastfeeding, interrupted
• Dentition, impaired
• Electrolyte Imbalance, risk for
• Failure to Thrive, adult
• Breastfeeding, effective
• Breastfeeding, ineffective
• Breastfeeding, interrupted
• Dentition, impaired
• Electrolyte Imbalance, risk for
• Failure to Thrive, adult
• Feeding Pattern, ineffective infant
• Fluid Balance, readiness for enhanced
• [Fluid Volume, deficient hypertonic or hypotonic]
• Fluid Volume, deficient [isotonic]
• Fluid Volume excess
• Fluid Volume, risk for deficient
• Fluid Volume, risk for imbalanced
• Glucose Level, risk for unstable blood
• Liver Function, risk for impaired
• Nausea
• Nutrition: less than body requirements, imbalanced
• Nutrition: more than body requirements, imbalanced
• Nutrition: more than body requirements, risk for imbalanced
• Nutrition, readiness for enhanced
• Oral Mucous Membrane, impaired
• Swallowing, impaired
• Fluid Balance, readiness for enhanced
• [Fluid Volume, deficient hypertonic or hypotonic]
• Fluid Volume, deficient [isotonic]
• Fluid Volume excess
• Fluid Volume, risk for deficient
• Fluid Volume, risk for imbalanced
• Glucose Level, risk for unstable blood
• Liver Function, risk for impaired
• Nausea
• Nutrition: less than body requirements, imbalanced
• Nutrition: more than body requirements, imbalanced
• Nutrition: more than body requirements, risk for imbalanced
• Nutrition, readiness for enhanced
• Oral Mucous Membrane, impaired
• Swallowing, impaired
Hygiene—ability to perform activities of daily living
• Neglect, self
• Self-Care, readiness for enhanced
• Self-Care Deficit: bathing
• Self-Care Deficit: dressing
• Self-Care Deficit: feeding
• Self-Care Deficit: toileting
• Neglect, self
• Self-Care, readiness for enhanced
• Self-Care Deficit: bathing
• Self-Care Deficit: dressing
• Self-Care Deficit: feeding
• Self-Care Deficit: toileting
Neurosensory—ability to perceive, integrate, and respond to internal and external cues
• Confusion, acute
• Confusion, risk for acute
• Confusion, chronic
• Infant Behavior, disorganized
• Infant Behavior, risk for disorganized
• Infant Behavior, readiness for enhanced organized
• Memory, impaired
• Neglect, unilateral
• Peripheral Neurovascular Dysfunction, risk for
• Sensory Perception, disturbed (specify: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, tactile, olfactory)
• Stress Overload
• [Thought Processes, disturbed]
• Confusion, acute
• Confusion, risk for acute
• Confusion, chronic
• Infant Behavior, disorganized
• Infant Behavior, risk for disorganized
• Infant Behavior, readiness for enhanced organized
• Memory, impaired
• Neglect, unilateral
• Peripheral Neurovascular Dysfunction, risk for
• Sensory Perception, disturbed (specify: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, tactile, olfactory)
• Stress Overload
• [Thought Processes, disturbed]
Monday, June 12, 2017
Nursing Diagnoses Organized According to Diagnostic Divisions
Activity/Rest—ability to engage in necessary or desired activities of life (work and leisure) and to obtain adequate sleep and rest
• Activity Intolerance
• Activity Intolerance, risk for
• Activity Planning, ineffective
• Disuse Syndrome, risk for
• Diversional Activity, deficient
• Fatigue
• Insomnia
• Lifestyle, sedentary
• Mobility, impaired bed
• Mobility, impaired wheelchair
• Sleep, readiness for enhanced
• Sleep Deprivation
• Sleep Pattern, disturbed
• Transfer Ability, impaired
• Walking, impaired
• Activity Intolerance, risk for
• Activity Planning, ineffective
• Disuse Syndrome, risk for
• Diversional Activity, deficient
• Fatigue
• Insomnia
• Lifestyle, sedentary
• Mobility, impaired bed
• Mobility, impaired wheelchair
• Sleep, readiness for enhanced
• Sleep Deprivation
• Sleep Pattern, disturbed
• Transfer Ability, impaired
• Walking, impaired
Circulation—ability to transport oxygen and nutrients necessary to meet cellular needs
• Autonomic Dysreflexia
• Autonomic Dysreflexia, risk for
• Bleeding, risk for
• Cardiac Output, decreased
• Intracranial Adaptive Capacity, decreased
• Perfusion, ineffective peripheral tissue
• Perfusion, risk for decreased cardiac tissue
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective cerebral tissue
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective gastrointestinal
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective renal
• Shock, risk for
• Autonomic Dysreflexia, risk for
• Bleeding, risk for
• Cardiac Output, decreased
• Intracranial Adaptive Capacity, decreased
• Perfusion, ineffective peripheral tissue
• Perfusion, risk for decreased cardiac tissue
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective cerebral tissue
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective gastrointestinal
• Perfusion, risk for ineffective renal
• Shock, risk for
Ego Integrity—ability to develop and use skills and behaviors to integrate and manage life experiences
• Anxiety [specify level]
• Anxiety, death
• Behavior, risk-prone health
• Body Image, disturbed
• Conflict, decisional (specify)
• Coping, defensive
• Coping, ineffective
• Coping, readiness for enhanced
• Decision Making, readiness for enhanced
• Denial, ineffective
• Dignity, risk for compromised human
• Distress, moral
• Energy Field, disturbed
• Fear
• Grieving
• Grieving, complicated
• Grieving, risk for complicated
• Hope, readiness for enhanced
• Hopelessness
• Identity, disturbed personal
• Post-Trauma Syndrome
• Post-Trauma Syndrome, risk for
• Power, readiness for enhanced
• Powerlessness
• Powerlessness, risk for
• Rape-Trauma Syndrome
• Relationships, readiness for enhanced
• Religiosity, impaired
• Religiosity, risk for impaired
• Religiosity, readiness for enhanced
• Relocation Stress Syndrome
• Relocation Stress Syndrome, risk for
• Resilience, impaired individual
• Resilience, readiness for enhanced
• Resilience, risk for compromised
• Self-Concept, readiness for enhanced
• Self-Esteem, chronic low
• Self-Esteem, situational low
• Self-Esteem, risk for situational low
• Sorrow, chronic
• Spiritual Distress
• Spiritual Distress, risk for
• Spiritual Well-Being, readiness for enhanced
• Anxiety, death
• Behavior, risk-prone health
• Body Image, disturbed
• Conflict, decisional (specify)
• Coping, defensive
• Coping, ineffective
• Coping, readiness for enhanced
• Decision Making, readiness for enhanced
• Denial, ineffective
• Dignity, risk for compromised human
• Distress, moral
• Energy Field, disturbed
• Fear
• Grieving
• Grieving, complicated
• Grieving, risk for complicated
• Hope, readiness for enhanced
• Hopelessness
• Identity, disturbed personal
• Post-Trauma Syndrome
• Post-Trauma Syndrome, risk for
• Power, readiness for enhanced
• Powerlessness
• Powerlessness, risk for
• Rape-Trauma Syndrome
• Relationships, readiness for enhanced
• Religiosity, impaired
• Religiosity, risk for impaired
• Religiosity, readiness for enhanced
• Relocation Stress Syndrome
• Relocation Stress Syndrome, risk for
• Resilience, impaired individual
• Resilience, readiness for enhanced
• Resilience, risk for compromised
• Self-Concept, readiness for enhanced
• Self-Esteem, chronic low
• Self-Esteem, situational low
• Self-Esteem, risk for situational low
• Sorrow, chronic
• Spiritual Distress
• Spiritual Distress, risk for
• Spiritual Well-Being, readiness for enhanced
Thursday, June 8, 2017
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY
Depolarization of the heart is the initiating event for cardiac contraction. The electric currents that spread through the heart are produced by three components: cardiac pacemaker cells, specialized conduction tissue, and the heart muscle itself.The ECG,however, records only the depolarization (stimulation) and repolarization (recovery) potentials generated by the atrial and ventricular myocardium.
The depolarization stimulus for the normal heartbeat originates in the sinoatrial (SA) node, or sinus node, a collection of pacemaker cells.These cells fire spontaneously; that is, they exhibit automaticity. The first phase of cardiac electrical activation is the spread of the depolarization wave through the right and left atria, followed by atrial contraction. Next, the impulse stimulates pacemaker and specialized conduction tissues in the atrioventricular (AV) nodal and His-bundle areas; together, these two regions constitute the AV junction. The bundle of His bifurcates into two main branches, the right and left bundles, which rapidly transmit depolarization wavefronts to the right and left ventricular myocardium by way of Purkinje fibers. The main left bundle bifurcates into two primary subdivisions, a left anterior fascicle and a left posterior fascicle. The depolarization wavefronts then spread through the ventricular wall, from endocardium to epicardium, triggering ventricular contraction.
Since the cardiac depolarization and repolarization waves have direction and magnitude, they can be represented by vectors. Vectorcardiograms that measure and display these instantaneous potentials are no longer used much in clinical practice.However, the general principles of vector analysis remain fundamental to understanding the genesis of normal and pathologic ECG waveforms.Vector analysis illustrates a central concept of electrocardiography—that the ECG records the complex spatial and temporal summation of electrical potentials from multiple myocardial fibers conducted to the surface of the body.This principle accounts for inherent limitations in both ECG sensitivity (activity from certain cardiac regions may be canceled out or may be too weak to be recorded) and specificity (the same vectorial sum can result from either a selective gain or a loss of forces in opposite directions).
Tuesday, April 18, 2017
Reference Ranges—Hematology and Coagulation
Reference Ranges—Hematology and Coagulation
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Ethical Core Concepts of Nursing Practice
Professional nurses occupy the frontlines of the health care arena.
So, it is no surprise that they are the part of the health care team patients
trust most with their health and welfare. Along with this privilege, nurses
carry equal duties of responsibility and accountability to follow ethical
principles and standards of care integral to the profession. Greater efforts
must be made from within the profession to apply evidence-based research data to
daily practice systematically and deliberately, thereby increasing patient
safety, improving outcomes, and reducing risk and adverse events. Transformation
of the professional culture within the health care system itself would give
nurses at the bedside the incentive to join in these efforts as full partners
with leaders in health care. Additional measures might include protocol
implementation, preceptor performance review, peer review, continuing education,
patient satisfaction surveys, and the implementation of risk management
techniques. However, in certain instances, either despite or in the absence of
such internal mechanisms, claims are made for an alleged injury or alleged
malpractice liability. Although the vast majority of claims may be without
merit, many professional nurses will have to deal with the unfamiliar legal
system. A system of ethical principles and standards of care will be beneficial
in such situations. Therefore, it is preferable for the nursing profession to
incorporate certain ethical and legal principles and protocols into practice to
make sure that the patient receives only safe and appropriate care.
Clinical ethics literature identifies four principles and values
that are integral to the professional nurse's practice: the nurse's ethical duty
to respect the patient's autonomy and to act with beneficence, nonmaleficence,
and justice.
RESPECT FOR THE INDIVIDUAL AND HIS AUTONOMY
-
Respect for the individual's autonomy incorporates principles of freedom of choice, self-determination, and privacy.
-
The professional nurse's duty is to view and treat each individual as an autonomous, self-determining person with the freedom to act in accordance with self-chosen, informed goals, as long as the action does not interfere or infringe on the autonomous action of another.
-
See the National League of Nursing Statement on Patients' Rights (see Box 2-1).
-
The Joint Commission has established National Patient Safety Goals based on such settings as ambulatory care, assisted living, and the facility. See www.jointcommission.org/patientsafety/nationalpatientsafetygoals for more information.
BENEFICENCE
The principle of beneficence affirms the inherent professional
aspiration and duty to help promote the well-being of others and, often, is the
primary motivating factor for those who choose a career in the health care
profession. Health care professionals aspire to help people achieve a better
life through an improved state of health.
NONMALEFICENCE
-
The principle of nonmaleficence complements beneficence and obligates the professional nurse not to harm the patient directly or with intent.
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It is best to seek to promote a balance of potential riskinduced harms with benefits, with the basic guideline being to strive to maximize expected benefits and minimize possible harms. Therefore, nonmaleficence should be balanced with beneficence.
JUSTICE
-
Justice, or fairness, relates to the distribution of services and resources.
-
As the health care dollar becomes increasingly more scarce, justice seeks to allocate resources fairly and treat patients equally.
-
Dilemmas arise when resources are scarce and insufficient to meet the needs of everyone. How do we decide fairly who gets what in such situations?
-
One might consider whether it is just or fair for many people not to have funding or access to the most basic preventive care, whereas others have insurance coverage for expensive and long-term hospitalizations.
-
Along with respect for people and their autonomy, the complex principle of justice is a culturally comfortable principle in countries such as the United States. Nonetheless, the application of justice is complex and often challenging.
Monday, April 25, 2016
Preventing Patient Falls
Falls are a major cause of injury and death among elderly people. In fact, the
older the person, the more likely he is to die of a fall or its complications.
Factors that contribute to falls among elderly patients include lengthy
convalescent periods, a greater risk of incomplete recovery, medications,
increasing physical disability, and impaired vision or hearing.
If you're helping a fallen patient, send an assistant to collect
the assessment or resuscitation equipment you need.
Preventing
Assess your patient's risk of falling at least once each shift (or
at least every 3 months if the patient is in a long-term care facility). Your
facility may require more frequent assessments. Note any changes in his
condition -such as decreased mental status- that increase his chances of
falling. If you decide that he's at risk, take steps to reduce the danger.
Correct potential dangers in the patient's room. Position the call
light so that he can reach it. Provide adequate nighttime
lighting.
Place the patient's personal belongings and aids (purse, wallet,
books, tissues, urinal, commode, cane or walker) within easy reach.
Instruct him to rise slowly from a supine position to avoid possible dizziness and loss of balance.
Keep the bed in its lowest position so the
patient can easily reach the floor when he gets out of bed. This also reduces the distance to the floor in case he
falls. Lock the bed's wheels. If side rails are to be raised, observe the
patient frequently.
Advise the patient to wear nonskid footwear.
Respond promptly to the patient's call light to
help limit the number of times he gets out of bed without help.
Check the patient at least every 2 hours. Check a high-risk patient
every 30 minutes.
Alert other caregivers to the patient's risk of falling and to the
interventions you've implemented.
Consider other precautions, such as placing two high-risk patients
in the same room and having someone with them at all times.
Encourage the patient to perform active range-of-motion (ROM)
exercises to improve flexibility and coordination.
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